Somalia

Islam in Somalia: Early History and Role

• Arrival of Islam: Islam came to the Somali coast quite early, through trade, contacts with Arab merchants and scholars. Over centuries, Islam became deeply ingrained; Sufi orders (Qadiriyya, Salihiya etc.) played large roles. Traditional clan systems and Islamic authority (sheikhs, qadi judges, Quranic schools) co-existed, often intertwining. Encyclopedia Britannica+2Conciliation Resources+2

• Islamic states/empires: Throughout pre-colonial and early colonial history, there were Muslim sultanates (Ajuran, Adal etc.), scholar-rulers, and movements that resisted Christian Ethiopia as well as later colonial powers. The struggle of the Sultanate of Adal under Ahmad ibn Ibraham al-Grāni (“Ahmad Grani”) is famous: in the 16th century he led Muslim forces in a holy war (“jihad”) against the Christian Ethiopian empire. Encyclopedia Britannica

Oppression and Conflict, by Period

Below are major periods / episodes where Muslims in Somalia either faced oppression, or where religious identity played a role in conflict, suppression, or resistance.

1. Colonial Period (late 19th century – mid 20th)

• Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan / the Dervish Movement (1899-1920)
  A central figure in Somali Muslim resistance. He led the Dervish Movement aiming to resist British, Italian, and Ethiopian rule, build a more unified Somali identity and assert Islamic governance. Wikipedia+2maysaloon.org+2
  The colonial authorities responded with military expeditions, harsh reprisals, attempts to disrupt supply, attacks on followers etc. The Dervish state was eventually defeated in 1920, including by aerial bombardment of its strongholds. Wikipedia+2maysaloon.org+2

• Italian Colonial Rule, Resistance, and Coercion
  Italian Somaliland used both coercive labor (forced agricultural / infrastructure work), land appropriation, suppression of local institutions, often disrupting traditional Islamic and clan authority structures. For instance, there were rebellions like the Banadir/Bimaal resistance, the Campaign of the Sultanates (1925-27) when Italian rule pushed into the northern sultanates. Islamic leaders often led or supported resistance. Wikipedia+3Wikipedia+3Som Tribune+3

• Suppression of Islam vs Recognition: While colonial powers often respected Islam superficially (e.g. allowed mosques, Quranic schools), they also tried to control or co-opt religious leaders, restrict autonomy, interfere in legal systems, use “divide-and-rule” by clans and religious difference. For many Somalis, colonial rule was seen as assaulting not just political sovereignty but religious / cultural dignity. somalia.com+2Crescent International+2

2. Post-Independence & Siad Barre Era (1960 – 1991)

• Early Independence: After 1960, Islam was formally recognised in the constitution, religious freedom was nominally established, though tensions occasionally appeared over the role of Sharia vs modern legal codes etc. Wikipedia+2Conciliation Resources+2

• Siad Barre Regime:

  Barre’s Ideology: Barre came to power in 1969; he promoted an ideology combining “scientific socialism,” nationalism, centralization, trying to weaken clans, traditional authorities, and put emphasis on state law and his regime’s authority. He also tried to modernize some social norms (e.g. family law). Counter Extremism Project+3Encyclopedia Britannica+3KEYDMEDIA ONLINE+3

  Repression of Religious Figures / Scholars: Those religious leaders who opposed Barre’s secularizing reforms or spoke against the government were often repressed. For example, in 1979 he ordered the execution of ten religious sheikhs who opposed a Family Law that conflicted with more conservative interpretations of Islamic law. Wardheer News+2Wikipedia+2

  Isaaq Genocide / Northern Repression: In the late 1980s, Barre’s regime carried out brutal repression primarily against the Isaaq clan in what is now Somaliland. This included aerial bombardment of cities (Hargeisa, Burao), mass killings, forced displacement, destruction of infrastructure, summary executions, rape. Estimates of how many Isaaq died range widely (e.g. 50,000-200,000), and many fled as refugees. Some international observers consider these acts amounts to genocide. Wikipedia+2Africanews+2

  Targeting Religious Identity / Islamists: Islamist or religiously aligned groups, scholars or preachers who were seen as threats to Barre’s power (especially those who opposed his reforms or sought greater role for Islam in governance) were often censored, arrested, tortured, or killed. There was tension between state-secularism (in his version) and popular demand for Islamic law / religious practice. Counter Extremism Project+2Wardheer News+2

3. Civil War, Islamic Courts, al-Shabab, and Recent Period (1991 – present)

• Collapse of Central State / Emergence of Islamic Courts: After Barre was ousted in 1991, Somalia broke into clan‐based warlord factions, with weak central authority. In many places, mosques, Quranic schools, religious scholars and Islamic courts stepped in to provide law and order, justice and dispute resolution. The Islamic Courts Union (ICU) emerged in the early 2000s, gaining support partly because of popular frustration with instability, warlords, corruption. Conciliation Resources+2Jamiatul Ulama KZN+2

• Al-Shabab and Extremism: A splinter from the ICU and other Islamist networks, al-Shabab has become a major militant Islamist group. While many Somalis are Muslims, al-Shabab imposes a strict, often violent interpretation of Islam. Their enforcement of harsh punishments, suppression of dissent, coercion, targeting of civilians, etc., are also forms of oppression—though they see themselves as restoring or enforcing religious law. These dynamics have created complex situations: many civilians suffer, especially in contested regions. Counter Extremism Project

• Continuing Human Rights Issues Involving Religious Identity: In recent decades, there have been allegations of human rights abuses tied to religious dissent, suppression of religious scholars, suppression of religious expression in certain contexts, forced disappearances, extrajudicial killings. Sometimes the government, sometimes militias, sometimes Islamist insurgents are involved. Also, inter-clan conflicts sometimes overlay religious rhetoric, and some groups are ostracised or targeted for being perceived as too liberal, or too conservative, or too political. (Note: this is more fragmented; there is not always systematic documentation on all forms.)

Themes & Patterns of Oppression

Putting together from these episodes, certain recurring patterns emerge:

1. Control over religious authority: Authorities—colonial, postcolonial state, or warlords—often tried to control, suppress, or co-opt religious scholars, mosques, religious courts. Those religious leaders who are sufficiently independent or critical are often persecuted.

2. Association of Islam with resistance: Islam has often been the source of moral authority in opposition (to colonialism, to authoritarian governments). This means that religious identity and political dissent often merge, making religious institutions targets for suppression.

3. Clan / ethnic targeting under the guise of politics: Sometimes repression is officially on political grounds or alleged “insurgency,” but in effect targets specific clans which are largely Muslim (or Muslim subgroups) or sections of society that are seen as tied to certain religious movements. The Isaaq genocide is an example where a clan, many of whom are Muslims, was specifically targeted.

4. Secularism vs Islamist law / custom: Conflicts over family law, inheritance, the role of Islamic law vs state legal codes have been sources of friction. Some reforms by states—e.g., family law, gender equality etc.—have been resisted by religious figures, and when religious figures push back, they often face government suppression.

5. External pressure and war: Colonial invasions, foreign troops, border disputes (e.g. with Ethiopia over Ogaden) have often involved Muslims being under military pressure, sometimes being displaced or subject to harsh counter-insurgency tactics.

6. Suffering of civilians: Many of the oppressive actions (bombings, summary executions, displacement, famine) disproportionately affect civilians, many of whom are simply practicing Muslims without involvement in politics.

Case Studies

Here are a few detailed case studies:

• The Isaaq Genocide (1987-1989): Under Siad Barre, military operations in northern Somalia (Somaliland) targeted the Isaaq clan. The cities of Hargeisa and Burao were heavily bombed, civilian casualties were very high, many displaced, mass graves etc. The acts have been characterized by many as genocide. Wikipedia+2Africanews+2

• Banadir / Bimaal Resistance vs Italian Colonialism: The Bimaal clan in southern Somalia (Banadir region) resisted Italian encroachment (1890s-1908); imams and religious teachers were central leaders. The colonial response involved destruction, reprisals, suppression. Wikipedia+2Anadolu Ajansı+2

• Suppression of religious scholars by Barre over Family Law: Barre introduced a new Family Law with gender equality and changed inheritance rules which were contrary to more conservative interpretations of Sharia. Religious scholars who opposed these changes were arrested or executed. This event is often cited as a major turning point. Wardheer News+2The European Conservative+2

Complexity, Grey Areas & Limitations

While there has been oppression of Muslims (or of religious identity) in many contexts, it’s not one-dimensional. There are several caveats:

• Many Muslims in Somalia have held power or influence: Religious scholars, Sufi leaders, Islamic courts, and more recently Islamic movements like ICU have had strong legitimacy. Islam is deeply woven into society culturally, legally, and morally. So oppression is not an across-the-board suppression of Islam, but rather of certain interpretations, or of religious actors who cross certain political lines.

• Overlap of religion with clan, politics, identity: What appears as religiously motivated oppression often overlaps with clan affiliation, political power, social status. Sometimes conflicts are “religious” in rhetoric but are actually about control over resources, land, patronage, tribal alliances.

• Variation by region and time: Some areas of Somalia have more stability and allow religious freedom; others are heavily contested by Islamist militants or have harsh security conditions. The experiences of Muslims in Somaliland, Puntland, Mogadishu, or al-Shabab-controlled areas differ greatly.

Recent & Ongoing Issues

• Al-Shabab rule / insurgency impact on civilians: In the regions where al-Shabab exerts influence or control, there are reports of enforced religious norms, harsh punishment (sometimes beyond what local populations accept), suppression of dissent, restrictions on freedom of women, education, media etc.

• Government vs Islamist tensions: The federal government (and regional governments) often see radical Islamist groups as threats; attempts to curtail them may involve militarized action, arrests, curbs on mosques etc., which can affect ordinary Muslims perceived as sympathetic.

• Displacement, famine, humanitarian crises exacerbated by conflict: These crises often hit rural Muslim populations hardest. The collateral damage of military campaigns, counter-insurgency, aerial bombardments, landmines etc. is severe.